The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon
The Christian biblical canon is the set of books that Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the Christian Bible. The canonization process was complex and lengthy, involving much debate and disagreement among early Christians before arriving at the modern consensus on the canon. The formation of the canon began in the 1st century CE and was not complete until the 5th century CE.
The Old Testament Canon
The Old Testament canon was largely inherited from Judaism. The Torah (Pentateuch), the Prophets (Neviim), and the Writings (Ketuvim) – collectively forming the Hebrew Bible – was accepted as scripture by the early church. However, the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, was most commonly used by early Christians. The Septuagint contains some additional books not found in the Hebrew Bible. The status of these books (known as the Deuterocanon or Apocrypha) would become a point of contention in the formation of the Old Testament canon.
Some key events in the formation of the Old Testament canon:
– c.170 CE – Melito of Sardis produces the first known Christian list of the Old Testament books, largely matching the Hebrew Bible except for the book of Esther.
– 382 CE – Pope Damasus commissions the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible, providing a standard version of the scriptures in Latin. The Vulgate Old Testament contains the Deuterocanonical books.
– c.390 CE – Gregory of Nazianzus produces a list of canonical books matching the modern Protestant Old Testament canon, rejecting the Deuterocanonicals.
– 397 CE – The Council of Carthage formally approves the canon list including the Deuterocanonical books. This list is later confirmed by Pope Innocent I in 405 CE.
– 1546 CE – The Council of Trent reaffirms the canonicity of the Deuterocanonical books, after controversy surrounding their status during the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches continue to uphold the larger canon including Deuterocanonicals.
So while early Jewish and Christian opinions differed, the larger Old Testament canon including the Deuterocanonical books was firmly established in Western Christianity by the late 4th century CE. The Protestant Reformers of the 16th century questioned their canonicity, returning to the smaller Jewish canon.
The New Testament Canon
The canonization of the New Testament was also a complex process with much debate. Some key events:
– c.130 CE – Justin Martyr refers to the “memoirs of the apostles” as being read in early Christian worship alongside the “writings of the prophets”, showing developing New Testament scriptures being used liturgically.
– c.140-155 CE – Marcion of Sinope, who rejected the full Old Testament canon, produces the first known New Testament canon, including versions of Luke and ten of Paul’s letters.
– c.180 CE – Irenaeus of Lyons produces a canon list including the four Gospels, Acts, the Pauline letters, 1 John, 1 Peter, and Revelation. This is the earliest known list matching the modern canon.
– 200s CE – The Muratorian Canon, the earliest surviving canonical list from Rome, includes the same New Testament books except for James, Hebrews, 1-2 Peter, and 3 John.
– 367 CE – Athanasius of Alexandria lists the 27 books of the New Testament in a letter, the first to unambiguously list the final canon.
– 382 CE – Pope Damasus commissions the Vulgate, Latin translation of the Bible, establishing a standardized text and list of books.
– 397 CE – The Council of Carthage formally approves the 27 book NT canon.
– 419 CE – The Council of Hippo reaffirms the same 27 NT book canon.
So by the late 4th century there was a broad consensus on the 27 book NT canon in the Latin West. The churches in the Greek East would take longer to solidify agreement. The major debates centered around books like Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2-3 John, and Revelation, whose authorship and apostolic origins were questioned by some. Regardless of these doubts, the concept of Catholic orthodoxy demanded agreement on the canon in the face of heretical movements like Marcionism.
Factors Guiding Canonization
What were some of the criteria early Christians used in deciding whether a text should be included in the canon?
– Apostolic origin – Was the text written by or directly associated with one of the apostles? Books like the Gospels and Pauline letters fit this criteria.
– Orthodoxy – Did the text conform to emerging standards of orthodox theology and teaching? Or did it contain controversial/heretical ideas?
– Liturgical use – Was the book widely used and valued in Christian worship services?
– Inspiration – Was the text thought be divinely inspired?
– Antiquity – Was the text connected to the earliest apostolic period and leaders of the church? Later texts were more likely to be questioned.
There was no single agreed checklist, but these criteria, along with the recognition of church councils, helped drive the sifting process toward the accepted canon. Other factors like the political influence of church leaders also played a role.
What Took So Long?
With the above criteria, why did it take centuries to formalize the biblical canon?
– Persecution – Prior to Constantine’s legalization of Christianity in 313 CE, persecution made it difficult for church leaders to meet together in councils.
– Geography – The scattered Christian communities around the Roman Empire made communication and consensus difficult.
– Tradition – Christians were reluctant to exclude beloved texts passed down for generations.
– Heresy – Marcion and other heretics spurred orthodox leaders to define the canon.
– Politics – Rival church factions differed over which books were acceptable.
Despite these obstacles, the emerging Catholic orthodoxy demanded agreement on a defined canon. This led to the consensus of the late 4th century and final agreement of Protestant Reformers in the 16th century.
Modern Christian Canons
While there is broad agreement on the 27 book New Testament canon, differences remain between Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Old Testaments.
Protestant Canon
Protestants recognize 39 books in their Old Testament, corresponding to the Jewish Tanakh. These include:
– Pentateuch – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy (5 books)
– Historical – Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther (12 books)
– Wisdom – Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs (5 books)
– Major Prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel (5 books)
– Minor Prophets – Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi (12 books)
The Protestant Old Testament canon was affirmed during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.
Catholic Canon
Catholic Bibles include 46 books in the Old Testament. In addition to the 39 books above, the Catholic Old Testament also includes:
– Tobit
– Judith
– Wisdom
– Sirach
– Baruch
– 1-2 Maccabees
These books are called the Deuterocanonicals or Apocrypha and were affirmed as scripture by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent in 1546, although they were included in Catholic versions of the Vulgate since the 4th century.
Orthodox Canon
In addition to minor differences in ordering and division, Orthodox Old Testaments include:
– The 39 Protestant books
– Deuterocanonicals included in the Catholic canon
– 1 Esdras
– 3 Maccabees
– Prayer of Manasseh
– Psalm 151
So the Orthodox canon contains 49 Old Testament books compared to 39 in Protestant bibles and 46 in Catholic bibles.
Despite these canonical differences, the 27 book New Testament canon is universally agreed upon by all major Christian traditions today.
Concluding Thoughts
The formation of the Christian biblical canon was a complex process spanning centuries. While early Christians debated which texts should be included, the emergence of Catholic orthodoxy demanded agreement on a defined set of scriptures. By the late 4th century there was consensus on the core 27 book New Testament canon, with the Old Testament generally stabilized by the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Differences remain between Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Old Testament canons. Despite this disagreement, most Christians acknowledge a shared scriptural heritage tracing back to the earliest apostolic period. The biblical canon continues to shape Christian theology, worship, and spirituality around the world today.