Food taboos, or food prohibitions, exist in virtually every culture around the world. They are social norms that restrict or forbid the consumption of certain foods and beverages. Food taboos can be based on religion, culture, tradition, ethics, or sometimes just personal preferences. The most common food taboos globally tend to relate to meat and animal products, though taboos also exist for other food groups.
What are the most universally taboo meats?
The most universally taboo meats around the world are pork, beef, and insects. Pork is prohibited in Judaism and Islam due to interpretations of religious scripture. Beef is taboo in Hinduism because cows are sacred in the religion. Entomophagy, or the human consumption of insects, is taboo throughout much of the Western world and other cultures, despite insects being highly nutritious.
Why is pork taboo?
The prohibition on pork originates in ancient Jewish law set out in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible. The texts forbid the consumption of pork, rabbits, shellfish, and other foods considered “unclean” for the ancient Israelites. The exact reasons for the pork taboo are unknown, but possible explanations include risks of trichinosis infections from undercooked pork or distancing Israelites from pagan groups who commonly consumed pork.
Islam later adopted the Jewish pork taboo when the Koran declared the flesh of swine as forbidden. Muslims generally avoid pork and any products containing pork derivatives. In Judaism and Islam, violating the pork taboo is considered a sin.
Why is beef taboo in Hinduism?
Cows have been venerated in Hinduism since ancient times as symbols of life and the sustenance it provides. Beef is taboo because the cow is regarded as a sacred animal in Hindu philosophy. Cows are revered for their agricultural uses such as plowing fields and providing milk. Beef consumption is antithetical to foundational Hindu principles of ahimsa (non-violence) and compassion for all creatures. Eating beef is sacrilegious in mainstream Hindu culture.
Why are insects taboo?
The widespread taboo on entomophagy in Western culture is thought to originate from Biblical classifications of winged insects as unclean animals, as well as general anthropocentric attitudes that denigrate arthropods. Insects elicit feelings of disgust in many cultures. Additionally, entomophagy is often associated with poverty and linked to notions of primitiveness or backwardness. These factors have engrained cultural attitudes that insect consumption is uncivilized. The insect taboo persists even though entomophagy has many ecological and nutritional benefits.
What are other common food taboos?
Animal Products
Many cultures avoid consuming various animal body parts and organs. For example:
– Blood is taboo for Jehovah’s Witnesses and some other faiths
– Many people taboo organ meats like liver, kidneys, brains due to associations with waste and contamination
– Eyes, feet, heads and reproductive organs may be taboo as they are seen as symbols of an animal’s soul or life force
Horse Meat
Horse meat is taboo throughout much of the English-speaking world and Latin America. Reasons include cultural views of horses as companions, status symbols, or competitive racing animals rather than livestock for slaughter.
Reptiles/Amphibians
Frogs, snakes, lizards, and other herptiles are taboo in cultures that view them as slimy, dirty creatures. This includes much of the Western world, Middle East, South Asia and Africa. Exceptions exist among some indigenous groups with traditions of eating reptiles/amphibians.
Cats and Dogs
Companion animals like dogs and cats are not considered food animals in Western culture. Eating them would violate cultural norms against consuming pets and carnivores. However, dogs are occasionally eaten in parts of East Asia.
Primates
Taboos against eating monkeys, apes, and other non-human primates relate to their human-like appearance and intelligence. Killing primates for food is seen as immoral.
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of an animal killed by means other than slaughter. It evokes feelings of disgust and fears of disease in many cultures. Religions like Islam and Judaism explicitly forbid carrion.
Reproductive Products
Human reproductive secretions like semen, vaginal fluids, and mother’s milk elicit strong disgust reactions in most cultures, likely for hygiene reasons. Some cultures taboo eggs as symbols of life.
Alcohol
Alcohol consumption is completely forbidden in Islam. It is also taboo or restricted in some Christian denominations and cultures with high alcohol abuse.
| Food Item | Reasons for Taboo |
|---|---|
| Pork | Religious doctrine in Judaism, Islam |
| Beef | Sacred status of cows in Hinduism |
| Insects | Perceived as dirty/uncivilized in Western culture |
| Blood | Association with death in many religions |
| Horse Meat | Cultural values of horses as companions |
| Carrion | Fears of disease/contamination |
What purposes do food taboos serve?
Though often based on tradition, culture or religion, food taboos frequently serve broader societal functions:
Hygiene
Avoiding meats, seafood and dairy prone to spoilage prevents foodborne illnesses. Bans on carrion, carnivores and omnivores reduce disease transmission. Refraining from certain animal products fosters ritual purity.
Sustainability
Restricting unsustainable harvests of vulnerable species prevents ecological damage and extinction. Temporary food bans can let populations replenish.
Identity Formation
Adhering to food taboos solidifies group membership and shared values. It signals obedience to cultural norms. Defining “forbidden” foods fosters a sense of community identity.
Social Control
Food taboos represent systems of social and religious control. They impose order and discipline on society through strict rules and dire consequences for violations.
Economics
Some food taboos arose to preserve certain foods for elites and nobles. Classifying a food as forbidden to lower classes helps concentrate wealth and power.
Politics
Rulers have used food taboos to subjugate populations throughout history. Forbidding certain foods weakens subjects while rulers exempt themselves.
Family Values
Taboos that strengthen family ties include prohibitions on incest and consumption of kinsmen. These strengthen intergenerational bonds and familial piety.
Psychological Comfort
Taboos alleviate inherent human fears like contamination and social transgressions. Following taboos provides comfort through perceived risk reduction.
| Purpose | Examples |
|---|---|
| Hygiene | Avoiding carrion, pork, shellfish |
| Sustainability | Seasonal bans on vulnerable species |
| Identity Formation | Kosher laws in Judaism |
| Social Control | Beef taboo for Hindus |
| Economics | Lobster as upper-class fare |
| Politics | Potato bans by British colonists |
| Family Values | Taboos against cannibalism |
| Psychological Comfort | Disgust for unfamiliar foods |
How might food taboos lead to malnutrition?
Food taboos sometimes have negative nutritional consequences when they forbid nutritious foods or require unhealthy substitutions. Potential issues include:
Loss of Key Nutrients
Taboos on organ meats, insects, eggs or seafood often eliminate vital sources of protein, vitamins and minerals, especially in subsistence cultures. Historical rickets outbreaks resulted from vitamin D loss when dark meat and lard were taboo.
Over-reliance on Staple Foods
When taboo foods are prohibited, communities may become dependent on monotonous diets of staples like rice or maize. This increases malnutrition vulnerability if staple crops fail.
Social Exclusion
Individuals may be barred from food sharing networks that provide access to balanced diets. Women are frequently excluded more than men.
Psychological Distress
Anxiety about violating taboos can inhibit consumption of nutritious taboo foods, even when permitted out of dire necessity. Individuals become conditioned to feel guilt, shame or disgust when considering taboo items.
Food Substitutions
When forced to replace taboo foods, communities may adopt less healthy or lower quality substitutes. For example, vegetation stripped of insects as an inferior protein source.
Disrupted Foodways
Imposed taboos can erode traditional food systems and knowledge of local environments. Losing generations of adaptive wisdom handicaps community nutrition.
Social Conflict
Taboo violations sometimes incite violence that disrupts food production and distribution networks, directly threatening community food security.
Overcoming malnutrition where taboos limit food diversity requires cultural sensitivity. Well-informed, community-led solutions are best to balance taboo preservation with public health strategies like nutrition education, sustainable resource management and equitable food access.
| Malnutrition Mechanism | Example |
|---|---|
| Loss of Key Nutrients | Vitamin D deficiency from lard taboo |
| Over-reliance on Staple Foods | Dependence on corn where beans are taboo |
| Social Exclusion | Barring women from meat sharing |
| Psychological Distress | Guilt prevents eating taboo fish species |
| Food Substitutions | Turning to poor quality vegetable oils when lard is taboo |
| Disrupted Foodways | Loss of foraging knowledge after missionization |
| Social Conflict | Violence over violations of beef taboo in Hindu communities |
Conclusion
While often dismissed as mere superstition, food taboos are complex social norms that persist through many generations for a variety of hygienic, ecological, religious and community-strengthening purposes. The costs of taboos must be weighed carefully, as strict avoidance of nutritious foods has exacerbated malnutrition in some populations. Nevertheless, food taboos should not be eliminated hastily, as doing so can erode valuable cultural traditions and knowledge. Public health initiatives are most effective when they consider the nuanced roles food taboos play for community identity and wellbeing. With culturally informed policies and education, even communities with strong food taboos can achieve better nutrition.
