Policing has evolved over time, with several key stages that have shaped how police forces operate today. Understanding the stages of policing provides insight into the development of modern law enforcement. This article will examine the major eras in the history of policing and how they have influenced police practices.
The Political Era
The earliest origins of organized policing date back to ancient times when armies, city guards, and sheriffs enforced laws and kept the peace. However, modern policing did not emerge until the early 1800s in London, England. The London Metropolitan Police was established in 1829 and is considered the first modern police department. This marked the beginning of the political era of policing.
During this stage, policing was heavily influenced by local politics. Law enforcement agencies were under the control of elected officials and appointments to the police force were political patronage jobs. Police officers were expected to serve the interests of political machines and powerful politicians. There were high levels of corruption and little training or standards for police work.
Some key characteristics of the political era include:
- Control by elected officials
- Policing driven by political interests
- Patronage determined hiring/promotion
- Limited organization and structure
- Minimal training and standards
- Widespread corruption
While flaws were inherent during this stage, the political era was important in establishing policing as an institution and paving the way for reforms.
The Reform Era
The reform era emerged in the early 1900s as a response to the corruption and inefficiency of politically controlled police departments. There was a push for policing to become professionalized with an emphasis on higher standards, training, and insulating police from political interference.
August Vollmer, the police chief of Berkeley, California, was a prominent reformer who pioneered new police practices during this period. Technological advancements like call boxes and patrol cars were introduced to improve police response times and capabilities.
Key aspects of the reform era consisted of:
- Separating policing from politics
- Hiring and promotion based on merit
- Adopting military-style organization
- Implementing advanced training
- Applying new technologies
- Highly structured chain of command
The reform model emphasized aggressive preventive patrols and rapid response to calls for service as the primary functions of police. It remained the dominant policing philosophy throughout much of the 20th century.
The Community Era
In the 1960s and 1970s, crime rates spiked across the United States. As a result, the effectiveness of traditional police practices came under scrutiny from critics who felt reform-era policing was too disconnected from community needs.
This ushered in the community era with a shift towards police-community relations and adopting strategies focused on crime prevention and public safety. Key aspects of this stage included:
- Improving community relations
- Focusing on crime prevention
- Increasing police accountability/oversight
- Expanding patrols methods beyond motorized units
- Tailoring approaches to specific communities
- Hiring more minority officers
Community policing emphasized developing trust and working partnerships between police and citizens. Neighborhood watches took hold during this period along with foot and bike patrols. The approach aligned policing goals with the values and needs of the community.
The Problem-Oriented Policing Era
Problem-oriented policing emerged in the 1980s led by criminologist Herman Goldstein who advocated refocusing police resources and efforts on crime problems rather than just responding to individual incidents. This data-driven approach involved identifying, analyzing, and addressing the underlying conditions that foster crime.
Key principles of problem-oriented policing include:
- Looking beyond crime events to risk factors/root causes
- Proactive problem solving
- Partnerships with the community/other agencies
- In-depth analysis of crime problems
- Tailored responses to crime problems
- Follow-up evaluation
While driven by research and analysis, problem-oriented policing remained attentive to community perceptions and priorities for public safety. It expanded the police role from law enforcement to problem-solving.
CompStat Era
The CompStat model emerged in New York City in the 1990s and soon spread to police departments across the country. Short for Computer Statistics, CompStat utilizes data analysis and crime mapping to track crime patterns and deploy resources efficiently.
Key aspects of CompStat policing include:
- Real-time crime data/statistics analysis
- Identifying emerging crime trends and problems
- Strategic management accountability
- Targeted, data-driven resource allocation
- Improved agency communication/coordination
- Performance measurement
CompStat represents a strategic management framework that leverages advanced data systems and analytical techniques to support decision-making and accountability in police departments.
Intelligence-Led Policing
Intelligence-led policing emerged in the 1990s as an analytical model that emphasizes using intelligence and information to guide the deployment of resources. Whereas CompStat focuses on statistically-based crime analysis, intelligence-led policing relies on gathering broader information about crime, offenders, and public safety threats.
Key features of intelligence-led policing include:
- Proactive data collection beyond crime statistics
- Analysis of offenders, criminal networks, threats
- Sources such as informants, surveillance, community
- Risk assessment of potential threats
- Sharing information across agencies
- Targeting enforcement based on intelligence
By leveraging greater volumes of information, intelligence-led policing aims to anticipate issues and address public safety proactively rather than just reacting to crimes.
Homeland Security Era
The homeland security era emerged following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks which exposed vulnerabilities to threats from international terrorist groups. Police departments were called upon to expand their role in counterterrorism and emergency preparedness.
Aspects of the homeland security policing model include:
- Focus on counterterrorism
- Emergency response readiness
- Coordination with federal agencies
- Vulnerability threat assessments
- Intelligence analysis of terrorist risks
- Critical infrastructure protection
While protecting against terrorism is a major emphasis, the homeland security approach has also led to improved emergency planning for responding to disasters and civil unrest.
Conclusion
Examining the major eras provides perspective on the evolving priorities and strategies that have shaped policing over time. While new approaches emerge, effective policing still requires adapting to community needs. Striking the right balance between crime control and due process continues to challenge police in protecting public safety and upholding the law during each new stage.